International capital budgeting

bulge outside(a)istic metropolis work outingExecutive abbreviationIn todays competitive environment, with companies argon looking to expand their business non save nationally except withal in impertinent merchandises. For taking the decision on whether to set up in a overseas accomplishment or non the confederation needs to assess various options it has. heavy(p) Budgeting techniques be used in stray to evaluate or comparing different proposals. there is a inconsistency in bang-up budgeting techniques for immaterial operations as several factors much(prenominal) as rally prescribes, swelling pastures, blocked funds, government policies, etc.The pictures arising out of foreign operations argon different for the foot soldier bon ton and put up union. silver combines should be considerd for the institutionalizeor i.e. the p atomic number 18nt company and if the NPV of funds inclines aft(prenominal) subsequent adjustments comes out to be s ubstantiatively charged for p atomic number 18nt company the coronation decision might come along fruitful. Although a positive NPV for secondary would a standardised add to the wealth of the corporation scarce generally stir companys in such(prenominal) instances ar a minuscular hesitant to invest. Favourable condition is the genius in which both companies meet a positive return.The comprise of capital also needs to be estimated correctly by making suitable adjustments. Overall cost of capital should be set downed by having an optimal cost social organisation indoors several constraints.Several Decisions need to be made by the International Finance Manager on whether to expand, postp bingle or abandon the puke in cases of sudden rise or fall in admit. Generally, companies do non wish to abandon the chore as entering and de areaure market is more costlier than bearing operational loss for sometime. Careful vigilance to the demand and mixtureer(a) foreign and topical anaesthetic government policies come into trope while taking this decision.IntroductionMany menages around the world air out business activities in more than one ground such firms are known as Multinational Corporations (MNCs). With cast up in globalization such activities have been on a rise. Many Indian firms also later onwards the inception of Liberalization, Globalization and Privatization policy have started to raise pay in foreign markets, export goods and services, meaning goods and services and eventide invest abroad. However, the fundamentals of fiscal management do not differ whether the firm is domestic or an International firm i.e. a firm which has satisfying foreign operations. Although on that point are a a couple of(prenominal) factors that need to be considered in International firms such as capital denominations, assessation and an other(prenominal) Government implications, varying accounting standards, barriers to trade and financial races and political risk. genius of the key factors for firms having their operations in foreign countries is the rallying sum up. Exchange measure unlike few years back (1971) where devaluations and revaluations occurred only very seldom has wedded way to the musical arrangement of floating exchange grade. In a system of completely floating exchange rates, the relative termss of the currencies are driven totally by the demand-supply gap. Authorities in such a system do not attempt to forge the rate movements. But such an ideal system does not exist. Governments in all countries attempt to influence the movements of exchange prices either by dint of direct intervention or through a mix of monetary and fiscal policies as they regard exchange rate as a very important macro-economic variable. Such a system is called dirty float.Exchange rate directly influences the estimation of budget of a foreign investment. So in order to accurately medical prognosis the budget or hitability of a hurl it is essential to work out the exchange rates for future.Exchange RatesAn exchange re arrays the price of one currency show in terms of another. There are twain ways of quoting an exchange rate.Direct Quote A type of ingeminate in which exchange rate for a foreign currency is quoted in terms of number of units of local currency that are tinge to a single unit of foreign currency. For example when it is tell that exchange rate for vaulting horse is Rs 46, it illustrates a direct quote for Dollar.Indirect Quote A type of quote in which exchange rate for a foreign currency is quoted in terms of number of units of foreign currency that are equal to a unit of local currency. For example when it is said that $0.0233 is equal to Re. 1, it illustrates an substantiative quote for Dollar.Since 1993, the interbank foreign exchange market in India has been victimisation system of direct quote, prior to that it used a system of indirect quote.International Standards Organiz ation has developed three letter codes for all currencies that are used by the SWIFT ne 2rk that affects the inter-bank fund transfers. Codes for a few currencies areSpot Rate QuotationsSpot Rate refers to the rate of a foreign exchange contract for quick saving. Although it is said to be immediate its settlement is done in twain business days after the date of transaction.A quotation consists of devil prices. The first price is the holler price i.e. the price at which the dealer is testamenting to buy. The second price is the contain price i.e. the price at which the dealer is willing to apportion. The dissimilarity mingled with the two prices is known as the bid ask spread. It reflects the breadth, information and volatility of the currency market. The spread is generally expressed in fate terms. For e.g. if USD/INR Spot 46.2500/46.2600, it think ups that the dealer would buy one US dollar for Rs 46.2500 and sell one US dollar for Rs 46.6000. In this the bid ask s pread isCross Rate QuotationsIf the exchange rate between currencies A and B and currencies B and C is known indeed the exchange rate between currencies A and C tail assembly be determined by the followingS(A/C) = S(A/B) x S(B/C) forrard Rate QuotationsA rate which is heady today just the settlement for the transactions occurs at some stipulate date in the future. Banks normally quote frontward rates for maturities in the whole calendar months.For commercial customers it is mentioned in the uniform way as quotation for limelight rate. For e.g.USD/INR 3 Month Forward 46.4220/46.5210The above rumor signifies that after three months bank would buy one dollar for 46.4220 and sell one dollar for 46.5210.However, in the interbank market the onward quotes are precondition as a pair of trade points which are t and soce added or subtracted from out front quotation. The swap quote only expresses the difference between the espy quote and before quote. Decimals are not written i n swap quotes and are re put forwarded as followsConversion of Swap Rate into in a flash RateSwap rate dismiss be converted into immediately rate by adding tribute or subtracting the give the axe rate from spot rate. If the forward bid rate in points is more than offer rate then the forward rate is at a indemnity and hence the points are added to the spot rate in order to get unqualified rate. If the forward bid rate is more than the offer rate in points then the swap points are subtracted from the spot rate. The swap quotation is generally expressed such that the cultivation digit coincides with the said(prenominal) place as the last digit of spot price. So, in USD/INR quote given above, the rate 20/10 would mean INR 0.0020/INR 0.0010.On application of the above rule to the example, the outright forward quotation would be USD/INR 1 month forward 46.5005/46.5020.Forward Premiums and DiscountsIf the US dollar is costlier in the forward market than in the catamenia market t hen it is said that it is at a forward premium in relation to Rupee. Similarly if it is cheaper in the forward market it is said to be at a discount in relation to Rupee. With two way quotations in that location is no single unique way of quantifying the premium or discounts. One way commonly used is expressing premium or discount as an annualized percentage deviation from spot rate.Forward premium(discount) = (n-day forward rate spot rate)/spot rate x 360/nn length of forward contract in number of days Futures and Options in Foreign CurrenciesAn alternative to the forward market is the futures market. The currency futures contracts are alike(p) currency forward contracts in terms of size of the contract and delivery dates.The difference between forward contracts and futures is that forwards are customized whereas futures are standardized contracts.International affinity RelationshipsIn order to have consistent international financial policy a relationship between disport rat es, pompousness rates and exchange rates needs to be understood. Following theories dress this purposeCovered Inte domiciliate Arbitrage and Interest Rate ParityIt is an investment strategy whereby an investor buys a financial instrument denominated in a foreign currency and hedges his foreign exchange risk by marketing a forward contract in the amount of the proceeds of the investment back into base currency.Combined effect of such transactions and market pressures result in an equilibrium relationship which is known as interest rate resemblance (IRP) which preludes covered interest arbitrage transactions. When IRP exists, the difference between forward rate and the spot rate is enough to set off the difference between interest rates in two currencies. IRP condition states that the kin interest rate must be higher or cast down than the foreign interest rate by an amount equal to forward discount or premium on domicil currency. IRP tramp be stated as followsPurchasing busi ness leader ParityAccording to the innovation of purchasing power semblance barring the effects of barriers associated with the movement of goods or services across countries, price of each carrefour shall be same in each country, after making the appropriate currency conversions. It is also known as law of one price in economics. For goods which cannot be easily stored or transported law of one price doesnt hold, but for goods like crude oil and gold which can be easily stored and transported at that place arent major deviations from law of one price.A less restrictive form of Purchasing Power Parity is called the relative purchasing power parity which states that the difference in inflation rate between two countries is offset by the change in exchange rate. Relative Purchasing Power Parity can be expressed as followsInternational working capital BudgetingOnce a company has reached a decision to invest abroad the next thing to do is to evaluate various digests/proposals. The evaluation of the desire term investment project is known as capital budgeting. The order of capital budgeting is quite similar for both a domestic company and an international company. The difference is that in order to evaluate for an international company different aspects need to be interpreted into account such as computation of capital move relating to project in viewpoint of both fire and supplementary, cost of capital, etc.Evaluation CriteriaAn investment proposal can be evaluated using two types of method non-discounting and discounting methods. The non-discounting methods are simple to compute but are not as accurate as discounting methods as they do not take into consideration the time take account of money. The rivet would mainly be on the discounting methods.Non-Discounting MethodsAverage Accounting Rate of impart It takes into account profit before interest and tax with respect to investment. The profit is then compared to the required rate of return. A proj ect is acceptable if the mean profit is higher than the required rate of return. The negative aspects of this method are that it is based on accounting income and not on the money escape it considers profit before tax and it also ignores the time survey of money. lucre Back Period It is the number of years required in order to recover the initial investment. This method mainly focuses on early recovery of funds but does not consider the funds catamenia after the pay back period i.e. it does not take into account the career of the project. The advantage of such non-discounting methods are that they are easy to compute and can be used in the initial stages of project in order to compare which project would be able to recover the investment quicker.Discounting Methods clams Present Value In this approach projects are accepted where the stupefy honour of net bills influx during the life span of project is greater than initial investment. It is computed using.Choice between dif ferent methodsDuring comparing two proposals sometimes the result of two methods whitethorn differ as they rest on different assumptions concerning the reinvestment of funds released from the project. The NPV rule implies reinvestment at a rate equivalent to the required rate of return which is used as the discount rate whereas IRR assumes the funds to be reinvested at IRR. However, in such a case NPV is given preference as there are a few limitations of IRR method. Firstly, where projects of different life span are considered IRR inflates desirability of a short-life project as IRR is a function of both the time manifold and size of capital investment. Secondly, IRR remains to be put down on projects with a longer gestation period, even when NPV remains larger because IRR is high in those projects where several benefits accrue in early part of their economic life. Thirdly, there is a possibility of two IRR rates coming for a given NPV as they are computed using a polynomial equat ion.Between PI and NPV, NPV is given preference as it represents an absolute value.Computation of the currency mixThe decision to start a new project leases outlay of hard currency flow in form of investment but in return brings in funds and adds to the firms stock of wealth in future. exchange Flow can be grouped under three headsInitial investing during the period, toOperating hard change in flow during the period, t1 to tnTerminal notes flow or salvage value emerging at the end og the period, tn.The following factors should be kept in mindCash Flow is considered on after tax basisFinancing cost is not included patronage the fact that capital has a cost because such costs are considered elsewhere while determining projects required rate of returnCash flow is computed on an incremental basis and represents the difference between cash flow after the investment and cash flow in absence seizure of investmentCertain costs do not involve cash flow but involve probability cos t, such costs are included in the decision go lift Units Perspective and the Cash FlowIn multinational capital budgeting the question arises whether to compute the cash flow from viewpoint of the parent company or viewpoint of subsidiary company because cash springtime of one could be cash inflow for the other. For e.g. if the subsidiary company gives the parent company a royalty fees then it becomes an inflow for the parent company but it is an outflow for the subsidiary company. It is knockout to take a decision on whether to accept or rid of a proposal in such instances. In fact there may be many situations when the difference in the cash flow between the parent and its subsidiary occurs. For example if the tax rates in home country and foreign country are different disparity in cash flow would arise. It is possible that on account of lower tax rates in foreign country the after tax cash inflow is large enough to justify the investment proposal. On the other hand high tax rat es in the home country might render the investment proposal infeasible from viewpoint of the parent company. The parent company might reject the proposal imputable to low cash inflow due to exchange control apply by the foreign government, despite the cash flow being sufficient for implementation. In a situation where parent company charges the subsidiary exorbitantly for the use of technology and management, the cash inflow accruing to the parent company will be larger justifying the investment decision. Lastly, changes in exchange rate may change the cash flow of parent company. When the currency of the foreign country appreciates parent company gets a larger flow of cash in terms of its own currency. This might alter the accept-reject decision.In incorporated financial management the value of the project is determined by net present value of the future cash flows available to the investor. Since, parent company is the one which invests in the project , it is the cash flow of the parent company that is interpreted into account in the context of international capital budgeting.Initial investment fundsIf the entire project cost is met by the parent company the entire amount of initial investment is treated as the cash outflow. There are instances when the project is partly financed by the subsidiary itself through local borrowings but such borrowings do not form a part of the initial cash outflow.In some cases the subsidiary company makes superfluous investment for expansion out of the retained earnings, in such a case there is no cash outflow from the parent company but such costs should be treated as opportunity costs because in absence of retention of earnings, these funds could have been transferred to parent company rather than invested in the project in question. Thus, the investment out of retained earnings should be treated as cash outflow from parent companys perspective.Sometimes foreign government imposes exchange control and does not allow th e cash to flow to the parent company. Such funds are called as blocked funds. For this reason the part of the cash that is blocked is not treated as cash inflow from the parents perspective. However, if the blocked funds are reinvested in some new project then that amount is considered as investment by the parent company.Operating cash flow to a fault the initial investment, some adjustments need to be made to the in operation(p) cash flow as well. The tax generated through the sale of a subsidiarys product in the local market as well as in other countries is shown as cash inflow to the parent company but it is subject to downward adjustment by the lost income on sales previously realized through parent companys export to these markets. On the other hand if operation in the subsidiary leads to import of components and raw secular from parent company value of such import will be added to the revenue.The transfer pricing, when the parent company or any other unit of the firm charg es price for intra-firm transfer of intermediate goods, also influences the operating cash flow. The transfer pricing is adopted either for better working capital management or wavering of taxes through shifting of before-tax profit to a country with lower tax rates. When transfer pricing lowers the overall tax burden on the parent company it is treated as cash inflow. However, such inflows are discounted at a higher rate because they involve great risk.If there are incentives from the foreign government, they are included in capital budgeting. For example, if foreign government offers loan at a subsidized rate then the brightens from such an incentive is treated as operating cash inflow.When the subsidiary takes loans locally, the amount of interest payment is deducted from operating cash inflow. In case of domestic capital budgeting it is not the case as financing cost is included in the discount rate, but in case of international capital budgeting, the cash remitted to parent co mpany would seem to be overstated if interest payments are not treated as cash outflow.Inflation influences both the cost and the revenue streams of the project and hence inflation rate differential also needs to be taken into account. If the inflation rate is higher in foreign country and if the import from the parent company constitutes a significant portion of the input of subsidiary, the cost will not move up very high but if the inputs are bought locally the cost increase may be substantial. Similarly, revenue would move up if there is no competition from foreign suppliers and the demand for the product is price inelastic. Although if inflation rates are very move it becomes very difficult to make an accurate forecast as the inflation differential would keep on changing.The exchange rate fluctuation influences the size of the cash flow. Changes in exchange rate are not only due to the changes in inflation rates but several other factors. It is difficult to predict the behaviou r of those factors. Nevertheless, the cash flow computation process incorporates different scenarios of exchange rate movements. If there is an appreciation in the value of foreign currency, it is good for the parent company as it will increase the size of cash inflow in terms of home currency. This gain may be offset by the high inflation rate but if in the future the rate of inflation is expected to lower thus helping appreciate the value of foreign countrys currency, the subsidiary should invest locally the payments to the parent company till the strengthening of currency.Terminal Cash FlowWhen salvage value of a project is uncertain the parent company makes several estimates of salvage value or closing cash flow and computes the NPV based on each possible outcome of last cash flow. Alternatively, it computes the break even salvage i.e. terminal cash flow necessary in order to achieve zero NPV for the project. Break even salvage value is then compared to estimated cash flow. If the estimated terminal cash flow is less than break even salvage value, the investment proposal would be rejected as the NPV would be negative. On the other hand if the subsidiary would sell for more than break-even salvage value then this would be coordinated into assessment of whether to accept the project or reject it.To further explain the terminal cash flow, we would break up the cash flow set-back from the first year to the nth year into operating cash flow (OCFt) and terminal cash flow (TCFn).So from the above equation we can conclude that in order to compute break even terminal cash flow we have to first estimate the present value of operating cash flows or the future cash flows without salvage value. When computed it is deducted from initial investment and difference is multiplied by (1+k)n.Parent-Subsidiary Perspective An Alternative onslaughtIn the earlier approach we analyzed that NPV of the investor is taken into account rather than project while deciding on whethe r to invest in a certain project or not. But if projects NPV is positive, it is bound to add to corporate wealth of firm as a whole. Under this approach two NPVs are computed, one from parent companys point of view and other is the NPV of the project. eventually the acceptance or rejection decision is based on NPV of both of them.In order to calculate the NPVP or Net Present Value from Parent companys perspective following steps are taken musical theme the cash flow in foreign currencyEstimate the future spot exchange rate on the basis of available forward rates transmute the foreign currency cash flow into home currencyFind home currency using home currency discount rateSimilarly to find out NPVS or Net present value from subsidiarys perspective following steps are takenEstimate cash flow in foreign currencyIdentify the foreign currency discount rateDiscount the foreign currency cash flow at foreign currency discount rateConvert the resultant NPV into the home country currency at spot exchange rate.In the above case the cash inflow represents the earnings of the project in foreign currency irrespective of the fact whether cash moves towards or away from the parent unit.The two methods above assume all-equity capital social system and so, if the parity conditions existed in the real world the two approaches would give the same value. But generally debt is normally included in capital structure in order to lower the cost of capital and furthermore parity conditions do not exist. The possible results could beNPVP and NPVS both negative and in such a case project is rejectedNPVP and NPVS both positive in such a case project is acceptedNPVP0NPVS The project is attractive from parent companys point of view but not from subsidiary companys point of view. In such a case project could be accepted but there are chances of loss in value in terms of foreign currency.NPVP